University of California v. Bakke

The case of University of California v. Bakke was a Supreme Court case over the dispute of Allan Bakke believing that he was denied admission to the University of California due to the color of his skin. Bakke was a white man and had better testing scores and grades than some of the African American students that were admitted.

The first argument that came up in the case was the issue of Bakke's age. Bakke was 35 years old when he applied to the university. The side of the university argued that if there was any discrimination that took place in the administration process, then it would've been one based on age. The side of Bakke would argue that age shouldn't be considered because he was only older than the other applicants because he served in the military before hand.

One of the other arguments that the University brought up was the fact that this wasn't a case exclusive to the University of California. Multiple other schools had also denied Allan Bakke of admission. This showed that it most likely was not a result of race that Bakke wasn't getting admitted to theses universities.

Lastly, The University argued that it was due to the other applicants being more well rounded and that although Bakke may have had higher test scores, the other applicants had better applications because they volunteered, played sports, participated in extra curricular activities, etc. This meant that Bakke wasn't denied because of his skin color, he was denied because he was too much of a one dimensional student. 

The decision made by the Supreme Court ruled that it was unconstitutional for a University to have racial quotas for admission to their school. However, a school using affirmative action to accept minorities was constitutional.

Bloody Sunday

 On the morning of March 7th, 1965, The marches from Selma to Montgomery Alabama. This was a peaceful protest to attempt to gain attention for voter rights for African Americans. However, on the day of March 7th when the marchers crossed the county line they were met with an onslaught of officers and state troopers. These members of law enforcement attacked the marchers with clubs, tear gas and even unleashed dogs on the unarmed protesters.

The unarmed marchers never fought back. Many were beaten within inches of their lives and they never fought back. They eventually just turned around and walked back to Selma. The protesters had shown who they were and the state troopers had shown who they truly were. 

Luckily, for the marchers, the entire assault was captured on video. Within days, the footage was given to news stations and broadcasted for the entire country to see. American citizens were appalled at what they were seeing and felt sympathy for the unarmed protesters. The marchers had gained the support of the country and would see the benefits of that soon.

The uproar of support for the marchers from people around the entire country lit a fire under the Alabama government and U.S congress. Not long after, on August 6th, 1965, Congress passed the Voting Rights Act. This act prohibited racial discrimination in voting. The marchers had won in the end.

https://snccdigital.org/events/bloody-sunday/ 

https://www.history.com/news/selma-bloody-sunday-attack-civil-rights-movement 

Influential Events in African American History

 There have been many important moments throughout the mid 1900s that influenced African American culture and have become a key part of American history.

First, The Congress of Racial Equality. This was founded in 1942, this group aimed at desegregating public schools. Their goal would eventually be completed as a result of Brown v. The Board of Education. A group similar to this one came about in the NAACP. The NAACP was the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. Their goal was to eliminate race based discrimination. For the most part their goal was completed. 

The Jazz age was also very influential in the shaping of a culture for black people. Jazz music originated in African American communities in New Orleans, Louisiana. This became a staple of the 1920s and brought blacks and whites together. Notable early black celebrities arose during this time in Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington. Lastly, The Harlem Renaissance was arguably the most influential movement for African American culture. The Harlem Renaissance began with the great migration which was the movement of black people in America from southern rural areas to northern urban areas. This led to a large population of blacks in cities and allowed them to form their own small communities. Within these communities, specifically in New York, there was an uproar of new literature and music styles made by African Americans. This was where many people site as the origin of African American culture.

Law Behind Brown V. Board

 Brown vs the Board of Education was a major Supreme Court case that took place in 1954. The Brown family was arguing for the desegregation of schools because it implied that blacks were inherently inferior to whites. The Board of Education was arguing on the basis of separate but equal. 

There is no good reason for children to be separated strictly because of the color of their skin in our country today. It should not acceptable for the idea that there is an “inferior” or “superior” race, to be a common thought in United States’ citizens' minds. 

In the case of Plessy V. Ferguson in 1896, There was a monumental decision made that resulted in the segregation of public facilities and a doctrine known as “Separate but Equal”. With that doctrine being said. Can two separate facilities really be equal? And why do they have to be kept separate? How could the relationship between blacks and whites ever improve unless we are forced to interact and get to know each other? As we've seen the rift between blacks and whites has shrunk dramatically since 1954.

The other problem that arose with the decision of Plessy V. Ferguson, is that if the races are to be separated, then there is always going to be a race that is treated as the inferior. Sadly in this case the African American race has been treated as the inferior race for over a century. This can only be stopped with the integration of the two races and blur the lines so that instead of being seen as black or white, they are seen as Americans. 

The decision of this case destroyed the idea of separate but equal and resulted in the desegregation of public schools in the United States. This was a major event in the civil rights movement and pushed our country closer towards the one we know today.

https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/brown-v-board-of-education-of-topeka 

https://www.uscourts.gov/educational-resources/educational-activities/history-brown-v-board-education-re-enactment

The Underground Railroad, Bleeding Kansas and the Election of Honest Abe

There were many events or movements that led up to the tipping point that was the Civil War in the United States. A few of the major topics are the underground railroad, bleeding Kansas and the election of 1860. Both of these things had major repercussions after they took place. These events have direct ties to the secession of the southern states and the start of the Civil War.

The Underground railroad was a network of secret routes and safe houses that ensured a safe pathway for escaped slaves to travel to the north. Once the escaped slaves got to the north they were then "safe" because technically they were now free in these states because slavery was outlawed. However, this is what caused the popularization of bounty hunting. Slave owners would put out a reward for whoever could find their escaped slaves and return them. This led to bounty hunters going into the north and kidnapping any one who was black, whether they were escaped slaves or not. This pitted the North and South against each other. 

Bleeding Kansas took place throughout 1854-1861. This was a series of violent confrontations revolving around the discussion of the legality of slavery. Kansas and Missouri were border states which meant that they were in the front lines of confrontation between the north and south. This led to people coming in from surrounding states, north and south to vote on state government issues to attempt to sway the state either pro or anti slavery.

Finally, the election of 1860 was the final tipping point that led to the secession of the southern states and start of the civil war. The election of 1860 was the election that saw Abraham Lincoln chosen as the president of the United States. Lincoln was very vocal during his campaign about his anti slavery views, as he was from the north. This angered Americans living in the southern states as they saw it as a threat to their livelihood. Lincoln was eventually elected and this resulted in South Carolina seceding from the United States in 1861 and ten other southern states later following their lead. 

The Laws Behind State V. Mann

The North Carolina court case of State V. Mann is an interesting one. John Mann, a slave owner, was charged with battery and assault on a slave named Lydia who was being loaned to Mann by Elizabeth Jones. The state fined Mann five dollars. Mann appealed the fine under the grounds that he had done nothing wrong. 

Legally considered property, slaves were not allowed to own property of their own. They were not allowed to assemble without the presence of a white person. Slaves that lived off the plantation were subject to special curfews. In the courts, a slave accused of any crime against a white person was doomed. In October 1705, Virginia passed a law stating that if a master happened to kill a slave who was undergoing “correction,” it was not a crime. Furthermore, the legislation said, when slaves were declared runaways, it was “lawful for any person to kill and destroy by such ways and means as he shall think fit.” When it comes down to it, slaves were considered property at this time and you can not be charged for assault on a piece of property.

The court ruled in favor of Mann and he was payed back the five dollar fine. While this decision is obviously morally wrong, the court has to make decisions based on laws and facts and the facts were that Mann hadn't broken any precedented laws. The ruling stated that slave owners had absolute authority over their slaves and could not be found guilty of committing violence against them.

John Brown and His Relationship with Slavery

 John Brown was born on May 9th, 1800. His relationship with slavery was a very interesting one. John Brown was a white man, but he grew up poor so as a result his family did not have slaves but he did witness the negatives of slavery as a young kid. Brown hated what he witnessed as a kid. He hated it so much that he dedicated a large portion of his time to helping free slaves whatever ways he could.

John Brown worked with the Underground Railroad, helping runaway slaves hide from bounty hunters and their masters by hiding them. He also opposed many laws and peacefully petitioned government to make his voice heard and help the enslaved community.

Sadly, John Brown decided that fighting peacefully would never work. In 1856 Brown led his five sons to Kansas where they slaughtered five pro slavery men. Three years later, on October 16th, 1859, John Brown would lead twenty men with the intent of starting a slave rebellion. He was unsuccessful and was arrested and executed by Robert E. Lee.